In sociology, Social Structure refers to the organised and regulated ways in which individuals and groups in society interact, interrelate, and organise their lives. It encompasses the norms, values, institutions, and relationships that create a framework for social life. This structure helps maintain order and predictability within society, distinguishing it from:

• Social Processes: Changes and interactions within society.
• Social Mobility: Movement within social hierarchies.
• Social Interaction: Individual and group interactions.

Auguste Comte, a French philosopher, introduced the concept of positivism in sociology. He emphasized the use of scientific methods to study and understand society, proposing that sociology should rely on empirical evidence and observable facts.

According to the Social Conflict Model, revolutions are the primary means through which significant changes occur in society. This model emphasizes how conflicts between different social groups, such as classes, often lead to revolutionary changes that reshape societal structures and systems.

The correct chronological order of these sociological developments is:

• Structural Functionalism (D): Developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to understand social stability and cohesion.
• Positivism (B): Introduced by Auguste Comte in the early 19th century, emphasizing scientific observation and empirical data.
• Social Conflict Theory (A): Popularized in the mid-20th century with contributions from Karl Marx and others, focusing on class struggles and societal inequalities.
• Multicultural Perspective (C): Emerged more recently in the late 20th century, emphasizing diversity, cultural awareness, and pluralism.

The correct answer includes the following features:

• Interact regularly / Often (A): Interaction is a key characteristic of a group. Members communicate frequently.
• Have some shared interest (B): Groups typically form around common interests or goals.
• Develop some sense of belongingness (C): Members feel connected and identify with the group.

However, living in the same geographical area (D) is not a necessary condition for a group, as groups can exist virtually or across distances.

• Growth (A): Refers to the increase in the size of the body parts or the organism (I).
• Development (B): Involves the process by which an individual grows and changes throughout their life cycle (II).
• Evolution (C): Refers to species-specific changes occurring over long periods of time (III).
• Maturation (D): Describes the changes that follow an orderly sequence and are primarily dictated by genetic factors (IV).

• Empathy: Involves understanding and sharing another person’s emotional experience. It is the ability to put oneself in another’s position and feel what they are feeling.
• Sympathy: Refers to feeling sorrow or pity for someone else’s misfortune but not necessarily sharing their emotional state.
• Coping: Refers to managing stress and emotional strain, not specifically related to others’ feelings.
• Reassuring: Involves comforting someone, often with words or actions, but does not imply sharing their feelings.

• (A) - (I): A stereotype is an overgeneralised and unverified belief about a group.
• (B) - (II): Psychotherapy involves using psychological techniques for treatment.
• (C) - (III): Humanistic Therapy assumes individuals can control their behaviour and make choices.
• (D) - (IV): A trait refers to a consistent behaviour pattern across circumstances.

Sigmund Freud introduced the tripartite structure of personality:

• Id: Primitive, operates on pleasure principle.
• Ego: Rational, mediates between id and reality.
• Superego: Ethical, represents moral standards.

(A): Correct, proteins are made of amino acids.
(B): Correct, essential amino acids must be obtained from diet.
(C): Incorrect, Mid Day Meal Programme targets school children.
(D): Correct, ICDS supports nutrition for young children and mothers.

The National Nutrition Policy was announced in 1993, identifying improving the purchasing power of the poor as an indirect policy instrument to enhance access to food and basic needs.

• (B): Least structured, explores phenomena.
• (D): Cross-sectional quantitative, provides correlations.
• (C): Longitudinal, tracks changes over time.
• (A): Most structured for hypothesis testing.

Replication is a strength of experimental designs due to controlled conditions, unlike ethical issues, small sample sizes, and non-representative samples, which are limitations.

• Ethnography: Studies cultural groups in natural settings using observational data.
• Phenomenological Research: Focuses on lived experiences.
• Experimental Research: Controlled cause-effect studies.
• Grounded Approach: Develops theories based on data.

• (B): Identify the problem.
• (A): Develop rapport with the community.
• (D): Participant observation for detailed data.
• (C): Data analysis and report writing.

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a research methodology emphasizing collaboration between researchers and community participants. This approach merges research with action to foster meaningful change while developing practical solutions to identified problems.

The correct chronological order is:

• Chadwick Sanitary Reforms: Introduced in the mid-19th century to improve public health and sanitation.
• Alma Ata Declaration: Adopted in 1978, emphasizing primary healthcare as essential for health for all.
• Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): Launched in 2000 to address global development challenges.
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Adopted in 2015, succeeding the MDGs with a broader framework for global development.

The unique features of public health include:

• Focus on population: Addresses health issues at the population level rather than the individual level.
• Organised community effort: Involves collective efforts to promote health and prevent diseases.
• Inputs from multiple disciplines: Integrates knowledge from medicine, sociology, economics, and statistics.
• Evidence-based approach: Uses scientific research to ensure effective outcomes.

AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome, caused by HIV. It attacks and weakens the immune system, making the body susceptible to infections and certain cancers.

The correct chronological order is:

• National Programme for Control of Blindness (D): Launched in 1976.
• National Mental Health Programme (B): Introduced in 1982.
• Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (A): Launched in 1997.
• RMNCH+A Programme (C): Started in 2013.

Explanation:

• (A): Incorrect. AIDS is a communicable disease caused by HIV.
• (B): Correct. ELISA is the first test used to detect HIV.
• (C): Correct. The National AIDS Control Programme was launched in 1992.
• (D): Correct. The first HIV case in India was detected in 1986.

• (A): Definition of Public Health (I).
• (B): Social Medicine (II).
• (C): A Treatise of the Scurvy (III).
• (D): On the Mode of Communication of Cholera (IV).

The Indian Research Fund Association (IRFA) was renamed as the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) in 1949, becoming India's leading biomedical research institution.

Community diagnosis involves collecting and analyzing data to understand health challenges and socio-demographic characteristics, guiding public health interventions.

The matches are:

• (A):Intersectoral Coordination (II).
• (B):2017 (IV).
• (C):Sub-centre (I).
• (D):1978 (III).

The Chi-square test is a statistical test used to determine if there is a significant association between two categorical variables. It is non-parametric, meaning it does not assume a normal distribution of data. The test compares the observed frequencies of data with the expected frequencies under the assumption of independence.

For example, if we want to check if gender is associated with a preference for a specific product, we could use a Chi-square test by creating a contingency table of observed and expected frequencies for the two variables.

The paired t-test is designed to compare the means of two related groups, such as measurements taken before and after an intervention on the same subjects. It accounts for the dependency between data points in the two groups.

For instance, a paired t-test could be used to assess the impact of a training program by comparing participants' scores on a test before and after completing the program.

A line diagram is ideal for visualizing changes or trends in data over time. It connects individual data points with a line, allowing for a clear representation of fluctuations, increases, or decreases over a given period.

For example, a line diagram could be used to track daily temperatures over a month or sales figures over several years.

Quarantine involves restricting the movement of healthy individuals who have been exposed to an infectious disease but are not yet symptomatic. This preventive measure aims to reduce the risk of spreading the disease during the incubation period.

For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, people who had been in close contact with confirmed cases were quarantined to monitor for symptoms and prevent further transmission.

Gambusia fish are small freshwater fish that are effective in controlling mosquito populations by feeding on their larvae in water bodies. This biological method is often used in stagnant water sources like ponds or drains to reduce mosquito breeding sites.

In contrast, other measures like space spray target adult mosquitoes, and bednets or repellants protect against mosquito bites rather than addressing larvae.

Pneumoconiosis is a lung disease caused by prolonged inhalation of dust particles, such as silica, asbestos, or coal dust, in occupational settings. It leads to scarring of lung tissue and reduced lung function.

Industries like mining, construction, and quarrying are commonly associated with this disease. Preventive measures include protective equipment and effective workplace ventilation systems.

Nominal variables are categorical and lack an intrinsic order or ranking. "Mother-tongue" is an example, as it categorizes individuals based on their primary language, such as English, Hindi, or French.

In contrast, variables like blood sugar level and temperature are continuous and measurable.

The World Health Organization (WHO) established the "Health for All" goal during the Alma Ata Declaration in 1978. It aimed to achieve universal access to healthcare and acceptable levels of health globally by the year 2000, focusing on primary health care as the key strategy.

The first International Conference on Health Promotion was held in Ottawa, Canada, in 1986. This event led to the creation of the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, which emphasized enabling people to have control over their health and identified key areas like building healthy public policies and strengthening community action.

Noise pollution is quantified using decibels (dB), which is a logarithmic unit for measuring sound intensity. Human hearing typically begins at 0 dB, while prolonged exposure to levels above 85 dB can cause hearing damage.

For example, normal conversation is around 60 dB, and a rock concert can exceed 120 dB.

The range of a dataset is calculated as the difference between the maximum and minimum values:

• Maximum value: 44
• Minimum value: 35.45

The range is therefore 35.45 to 44. Among the provided options, the closest range is 35 to 50.

The mode of a dataset is the value that appears most frequently. Analyzing the given dataset:

• 35: 3 times
• 44: 2 times
• 33: 1 time
• 37: 2 times

Since 35 appears the most (3 times), the mode is 35.

The correct chronological order is:

• Health for All (D): Introduced in 1978 through the Alma Ata Declaration.
• Primary Health Care (B): Proposed as the strategy to achieve "Health for All" in 1978.
• Millennium Development Goals (C): Adopted in 2000 with a global focus on health and development.
• Sustainable Development Goals (A): Launched in 2015 to replace the Millennium Development Goals and expand global health targets.

The mosquito life cycle includes the following stages in order:

• Egg: Laid on the surface of water.
• Larva: Hatch into larvae, living in water and feeding on microorganisms.
• Pupa: Transform into pupae, a transitional stage.
• Adult: Pupae develop into adult mosquitoes, completing the cycle.

The correct sequence is:

• Drawing up a protocol (B): Defining objectives, methodology, and trial plan.
• Randomisation (A): Assigning participants to groups to reduce bias.
• Intervention or manipulation (C): Applying the treatment being studied.
• Assessment of outcome (D): Measuring the results to evaluate effectiveness.

To determine the median, arrange each set in ascending order:

• (A): 71, 71, 79, 81, 83 → Median = 79
• (B): 75, 83, 89, 90, 90 → Median = 89
• (C): 70, 72, 75, 87, 87 → Median = 75
• (D): 75, 81, 84, 95, 95 → Median = 84

Arranged by increasing medians: (C), (A), (D), (B).

Probability sampling ensures every unit in the population has a known and non-zero chance of selection:

• Simple random sampling: Equal probability for all units.
• Systematic random sampling: Selection at regular intervals.
• Stratified random sampling: Division into subgroups and random sampling within each subgroup.
• Purposive sampling: Non-probability method where selection is based on judgment or criteria.

Observational studies involve no intervention by researchers:

• Case-control study: Retrospective study comparing cases with controls.
• Cohort study: Observes groups over time to assess outcomes based on exposure.
• Randomized Controlled Trial: Interventional study.
• Non-randomized Trial: Also interventional, lacks randomization.

Measures of dispersion describe the spread or variability in a dataset:

• Standard deviation (B): Quantifies variation around the mean.
• Range (C): Difference between the maximum and minimum values.
• Mean deviation (D): Average of absolute deviations from the mean.
• Mean (A): A measure of central tendency, not dispersion.

Occupational diseases result from workplace exposures:

• Silicosis (A): Caused by inhaling silica dust, common in mining and construction.
• Byssinosis (C): Caused by inhaling cotton, flax, or hemp dust in textile industries.
• Sickle cell anaemia (B): A genetic condition, not occupational.
• Thalassemia (D): Also a genetic disorder, unrelated to occupation.

Household-level data is collected by:

• Census (A): Gathers demographic, social, and economic data at the household level.
• National Family Health Survey (B): Focuses on health, nutrition, and family planning data at the household level.
• National Sample Survey (D): Collects socio-economic data on employment, expenditure, and education.

Hospital records (C): Are not collected at the household level; they pertain to individual patients.

The correct matches are:

• (A) Cotton dust: Associated with Byssinosis (I), a respiratory condition caused by inhaling cotton dust.
• (B) Asbestos: Causes Asbestosis (III), a chronic lung condition from inhaling asbestos fibers.
• (C) Silica: Leads to Silicosis (II), caused by inhaling crystalline silica particles.
• (D) Hay or grain dust: Results in Farmer’s lung (IV), a hypersensitivity pneumonitis from organic dust exposure.

The correct matches are:

• (A): Specific death rate due to tuberculosis usesMid-year population (II) as the denominator.
• (B): Specific death rate for males usesMid-year population of males (III) as the denominator.
• (C): Case fatality rate for COVID-19 usesTotal number of COVID-19 cases (I) as the denominator.
• (D): Specific death rate in age group 15-19 years usesMid-year population of persons aged 15-19 (IV) as the denominator.

The correct matches are:

• (A): Case-control study evaluates Odds ratio (I), comparing the odds of exposure between cases and controls.
• (B): Cohort study calculates Relative risk (II), estimating the risk of an outcome in exposed vs. unexposed groups.
• (C): Cross-sectional study measures Prevalence (III), assessing the proportion of a population with a condition at a given time.
• (D): Descriptive study focuses on Time, place, and person distribution (IV), analyzing data patterns.

The correct matches are:

• (A): Tuberculosis is transmitted through Droplet infection (I).
• (B): Malaria is Vector-borne (II), spread by Anopheles mosquitoes.
• (C): Cholera is Waterborne (III), spread through contaminated water or food.
• (D): Tetanus spreads through Infected wounds (IV), caused by Clostridium tetani bacteria entering cuts or punctures.

The Alma Ata Declaration of 1978 outlined primary health care as essential health care accessible to all. It includes components such as:

• Health education: Promoting healthy practices.
• Immunization: Protecting against preventable diseases.
• Essential drug supply: Providing basic medications for common conditions.

Specialist care is part of secondary or tertiary health care, not primary health care.

The correct order based on transmission mode:

• (A) Tuberculosis: Direct transmission through droplet infection.
• (C) HIV/AIDS: Direct transmission through body fluids like blood or semen.
• (D) Cholera: Indirect transmission through contaminated water or food.
• (B) Malaria: Indirect transmission through vector (Anopheles mosquitoes).

The BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine is specifically used to protect against tuberculosis (TB). It is given at birth or during early childhood in countries where TB is common.

It helps prevent severe forms of TB, such as TB meningitis in children, but does not provide complete protection against pulmonary TB in adults.

The principal vector of Dengue fever is the Aedes mosquito, specifically Aedes aegypti. This mosquito species is also responsible for transmitting other diseases such as Zika virus and Chikungunya.

Key characteristics:

• Daytime feeder.
• Breeds in stagnant water found in urban environments.

The levels of prevention are sequential and include:

• Primary prevention (A): Prevents the onset of disease (e.g., immunization, health education).
• Secondary prevention (B): Detects and treats disease early (e.g., screening programs, early diagnosis).
• Tertiary prevention (C): Reduces the impact of chronic diseases or disabilities (e.g., rehabilitation programs).

The correct matches are:

• Pertussis: Herd immunity threshold is 92-94%.
• Measles: Herd immunity threshold is 75-86%.
• Mumps: Herd immunity threshold is 80-85%.
• Rubella: Herd immunity threshold is 83-94%.

Herd immunity thresholds are critical for preventing outbreaks, and vaccination programs aim to achieve these levels to protect the community.

The correct matches are:

• BCG: Danish-1331 strain.
• Measles vaccine: Edmonston Zagreb strain.
• Mumps vaccine: Jeryll Lynn strain.
• Varicella vaccine: OKA strain.

Understanding vaccine strains is critical for effective immunization and combating diseases.

The correct reference intervals for fertility include:

• (A): 14% or more have normal morphology, indicating healthy sperm.
• (B): 75% or more are alive, ensuring viable sperm.
• (D): 50% or more with moderate to rapid linear progression, essential for reaching the egg.

(C) is not included, as the threshold for sperm concentration is higher than 10⁶ sperm/mL.

If the speck remains visible regardless of changes to the objective or specimen, it is located on the eyepiece. The eyepiece remains constant in the optical path and does not shift with adjustments.

To confirm, rotate the eyepiece; if the speck moves with it, it is indeed on the eyepiece.

Interference contrast microscopy, such as Differential Interference Contrast (DIC), produces three-dimensional images and allows optical sectioning by enhancing contrast in transparent specimens. It uses differences in optical path length to create pseudo-3D images.

This technique is particularly useful for examining live, unstained cells and their structures.

Fluorescence microscopy relies on the principle that certain substances absorb light (usually ultraviolet or blue light) at one wavelength and emit it at a longer wavelength (visible light). This property enables specific structures or molecules in a specimen to be tagged with fluorescent dyes, enhancing visualization.

It is widely used in biological sciences to study structures like proteins, DNA, or organelles by tagging them with fluorescent markers.

Darkfield microscopy employs a special condenser that directs light onto the specimen at oblique angles. This setup causes light to scatter when it hits the specimen, making bright objects appear against a dark background. It is particularly useful for observing transparent or unstained specimens like live microorganisms.

For example, Darkfield microscopy is often used to visualize thin structures such as spirochetes or unstained living cells.

Isotonic saline (0.85% NaCl) is used as a diluent for RBC counts because it maintains the integrity of red blood cells, preventing hemolysis. Other diluents, such as dilute acetic acid or Turk's solution, are used for WBC counts as they lyse red blood cells to visualize white blood cells better.

Always use isotonic saline for RBC counts to preserve cell structure and ensure accurate results.

The Vaccine Vial Monitor (VVM) is a label containing heat-sensitive material that indicates if a vaccine has been exposed to damaging conditions:

• (A): Inner square is white.
• (B): Inner square is lighter than the outer circle.
• (D): Outer circle is more dark than the inner square.

If the inner square becomes darker than the outer circle, the vaccine should be discarded.

Occult blood in feces can result from:

• Hemorrhoids (A): Bleeding veins in the rectal area.
• Bleeding gums (B): Swallowed blood from gums can appear in feces.
• Peptic ulcers (C): Ulcers in the stomach or small intestine causing minor bleeding.

Iron supplements (D): They do not directly cause occult blood but can make stool dark, which may be mistaken for blood.

The following are indicators for obesity:

• Body Mass Index (BMI): Widely used measure for obesity, calculated as weight (kg) divided by height (m²).
• Ponderal Index: Similar to BMI, used for pediatric populations.
• Brocca Index: A guideline for ideal body weight based on height.

Breteau Index is unrelated to obesity; it is an entomological measure used to assess mosquito larvae density in vector control efforts.

Chandler's Index: A parasitological measure estimating the intensity of hookworm infection in a community. It represents the average number of hookworm eggs per gram of feces, providing a quantitative indicator of infection intensity.

Other options:

• Breteau Index: Measures mosquito larvae density.
• House Index: Percentage of houses infested with mosquito larvae or pupae.
• Burrow Index: Not a standard index related to parasitology.

The Nikshay portal is a digital initiative by the Government of India under the National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP). It facilitates TB case monitoring, treatment adherence, and patient data tracking to support TB elimination by 2025.

Other programmes:

• AIDS: Managed under the National AIDS Control Programme.
• Leprosy: Covered under the National Leprosy Eradication Programme.
• Malaria: Addressed through the National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme.

The Aedes aegypti mosquito transmits diseases like:

• Dengue: Responsible for outbreaks in tropical regions.
• Chikungunya: Causes fever and joint pain.
• Yellow Fever: Endemic in certain tropical areas.

Japanese Encephalitis is transmitted by the Culex mosquito, not Aedes aegypti.

Haddon's Matrix: A framework developed by Dr. William Haddon Jr. to analyze and prevent accidents and injuries. It evaluates:

• Pre-event phase: Preventive factors before an accident.
• Event phase: Measures to reduce impact during an accident.
• Post-event phase: Strategies to minimize injury or damage after the event.

The matrix integrates human behavior, vehicles, equipment, and the environment to address accident prevention systematically.