In the landmark case of Daryao v. State of U.P. , the Supreme Court of India established that the principle of res judicata applies to petitions filed under Article 32 of the Constitution. This means that if a petition under Article 226 has been dismissed on its merits by the High Court, a similar petition in the Supreme Court under Article 32 would be barred by the doctrine of res judicata. This ensures finality and prevents repeated litigation on the same cause of action.

The “auto-limitation theory” posits that the basis of international law lies in the self-imposed limitations of sovereign states. According to this theory, a state’s sovereignty is the source of all legal obligations, and the state limits its own power by consenting to be bound by international law. The chief exponent of this theory is Georg Jellinek , who argued that states are free actors but voluntarily accept limitations to ensure stability and coexistence.

This concept is most famously associated with Hersch Lauterpacht. He emphasized the centrality of the individual in legal frameworks, asserting that the individual is the ultimate unit of all laws, whether international or municipal. While other thinkers like Austin, Starke, and Fenwick have contributed significantly to legal theory, Lauterpacht’s focus on the individual stands out.

The concept of “Droit Administratif,” a specialized body of rules governing the actions of public administration, is closely associated with the legal and political system of France. Napoleon Bonaparte played a significant role in its establishment, particularly with the introduction of the Conseil d’État, a cornerstone of the French administrative system.

In Ram Jawaya Kapur v. State of Punjab, the Supreme Court discussed the doctrine of separation of powers within the Indian constitutional framework. The court clarified that the Constitution doesn’t adopt a rigid separation of powers but provides for a functional differentiation among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, ensuring their distinctive roles.

Section 5 of the Limitation Act, 1963 deals with the extension of the prescribed period in certain cases. According to this section, the court can admit an appeal or application after the prescribed period if the appellant or applicant satisfies the court that they had sufficient cause for not preferring the appeal or making the application within such period. However, this section specifically excludes certain applications, such as those related to execution proceedings.

- A time-barred debt is considered an imperfect right, as it cannot be enforced due to the expiration of the limitation period.
- A right to reputation is a right in rem, enforceable against the world at large.
- A right arising out of a contract is a right in personam, enforceable against a specific individual.
- A right to physical integrity is a personal right, connected to an individual’s dignity and life.

Under Article 74(1) of the Constitution of India, the President is bound to act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers. However, as per the 44th Amendment Act of 1978, the President can send the advice back for reconsideration once. If the Council of Ministers reiterates their advice, the President is constitutionally bound to act on it.

Article 25 of the Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. However, this right is not absolute and is subject to restrictions to ensure public order, morality, and health, as well as compliance with other fundamental rights under Part III of the Constitution.

Under Article 213 of the Constitution, the Governor of a State has the power to promulgate ordinances when the state legislature is not in session. However, such ordinances cease to operate unless approved by the legislature within six weeks from the reassembly of the State Legislature.

- Article 54 deals with the election of the President of India.
- Article 75 relates to the appointment of the Prime Minister.
- Article 79 describes the Constitution of the Parliament.
- Article 80 pertains to the composition of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha).

- Right to privacy was recognized in Justice (Retired) Puttaswami v. Union of India.
- The legal framework for the death penalty was elaborated in the Bachan Singh Case.
- Prisoners' rights were discussed in detail in the Sunil Batra Case.
- The right to go abroad was emphasized in the Maneka Gandhi Case.

Friedrich Carl von Savigny’s theory of law, particularly his historical school of jurisprudence, is heavily influenced by Roman Law. He argued that law develops organically, reflecting the unique spirit (“Volksgeist”) of a society. His ideas were deeply rooted in the historical development of Roman Law.

The term “res nullius” is Latin for “nobody’s thing.” It refers to property or an object that belongs to no one. The res nullius rule implies that an object or property that previously had no owner belongs to the person who takes possession of it.

- Grotius is associated with De Jure Belli ac Pacis, which deals with laws of war and peace.
- Austin emphasized positive morality as the basis of legal systems.
- Thomas Aquinas focused on natural law, which advocates doing good and avoiding evil.
- Samuel von Pufendorf supported the supremacy of the law of nature.

Section 428 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1973 provides for the concept of “set off.” It allows the period of detention undergone by an accused during the investigation, inquiry, or trial for the same case to be set off against the term of imprisonment imposed upon conviction. This provision ensures that the pre-conviction custody period is credited towards the overall sentence.

The Transfer of Property Act, 1882 primarily deals with immovable property, though some provisions pertain to movable property. While most transfers require written documentation, the Act does not exclude all oral transfers. Due to the ambiguity in the options provided, this question has been dropped.

A Constitutional Amendment Bill does not require prior permission from the President to be introduced in Parliament. Once the Bill is passed by both Houses with a special majority under Article 368 of the Indian Constitution, it is mandatory for the President to give assent. The President cannot veto or return the Bill for reconsideration, and there is no provision for a joint sitting for such Bills.

Article 356 allows the President to impose President’s Rule in a State when constitutional machinery fails. Under this provision, the President can:
- Assume the functions of the State Government
- Assume powers vested in the Governor
- Declare that the State legislature's powers will be exercised by Parliament.
However, the President cannot assume the powers of a High Court as it remains an independent judiciary entity.

Through various landmark judgments, the Supreme Court has clarified that Fundamental Rights generally have primacy over Directive Principles. However, Articles 39(b) and 39(c) of the Directive Principles, related to equitable distribution of resources and prevention of concentration of wealth, are exceptions. These principles have primacy over Fundamental Rights under Articles 14 and 19 in specific contexts to promote socialism and equitable economic structures.

A decree for restitution of conjugal rights is aimed at compelling one spouse to resume cohabitation with the other. Under the Code of Civil Procedure, this decree can only be executed through the attachment of the respondent’s property. Arrest or imprisonment is not permitted to enforce such decrees in the current legal framework.

Under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution, Parliament has the power to make laws for implementing international treaties or agreements. This power extends even to matters listed under the State List without requiring the consent of the affected states. Such laws are deemed valid to ensure India’s compliance with international obligations.

The correct sequence in the Preamble of the Constitution of India is:
1. Sovereign
2. Socialist
3. Secular
4. Democratic
5. Justice
6. Liberty
7. Equality
8. Fraternity

Thus, the correct order of the given options is Sovereign - Justice, Socialist - Liberty, Secular - Equality, Democratic - Fraternity.

The Lok Sabha (House of the People) has the exclusive power to pass a non-confidence motion against the Council of Ministers. This ensures the accountability of the executive branch to the legislative branch. Other powers, such as impeachment of the President and ratification of national emergency, involve both Houses of Parliament.

The Tenth Schedule, or the Anti-Defection Law, provides for the disqualification of Members of Parliament and State Legislatures. A member can be disqualified if they:
- Voluntarily give up membership of their political party
- Vote or abstain from voting contrary to their party’s direction
- Nominated members are disqualified if they join a political party before six months.

- "Ut lite pendente nihil innovetur" relates to the doctrine of Lis Pendens, which prevents changes to property during pending litigation.
- "Qui facit per alium facit" means "He who acts through another acts himself," and is related to constructive notice.
- "Nemo dat quod non habet" translates to "No one can give what they don't have," related to ostensible ownership.
- "Qui sentit commodum sentire debit onus" means "He who receives a benefit must also bear the burden," related to onerous gift.

The correct order based on their appearance in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 is:
- Double Jeopardy (Section 300)
- Free Legal Aid (Section 304)
- Tender of Pardon (Section 306)
- Withdrawal from Prosecution (Section 321)

According to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a treaty can be terminated through the following methods:
- By consent of all parties.
- By denunciation or withdrawal as per treaty terms or international law.
- By concluding another treaty that replaces the old one.
- According to provisions specified within the treaty itself.

- The CrPC came into force on April 1, 1974, not January 1, 1974.
- The term 'First Information Report' (FIR) is mentioned in Section 154, not Section 207.
- The schedule attached to the CrPC contains eight columns, not six.

- The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) contains 30 articles in its main body, not 35.
- It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10th December, 1948, not 24th October, 1948.

The term “criminology” was coined by Raffaele Garofalo, an Italian jurist, in 1885. It refers to the study of crimes, criminals, their behavior, and its causes.

Benjamin Mendelsohn, a Romanian-Israeli lawyer, is credited with coining the term “victimology” in the mid-20th century. Victimology is the scientific study of victims of crime. Mendelsohn is also known as the father of victimology.

- A K Gopalan v. State of Madras: This case adopted a narrow interpretation of Article 21 and did not address post-decisional hearing.
- Minerva Mills v. Union of India: While significant, this case is not specifically related to post-decisional hearing.
- Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India: This case expanded the concept of procedural fairness, including post-decisional hearing.
- HL Terhan v. Union of India: This case also dealt with principles of natural justice.

In Afcons Infrastructure Ltd. v. Cherian Varkey Construction Co. (P) Ltd., the Supreme Court of India provided detailed guidelines on the applicability of Section 89 of the Code of Civil Procedure (CPC), which deals with alternative dispute resolution mechanisms such as mediation, arbitration, and conciliation. The aim is to reduce unnecessary litigation and ensure effective use of ADR mechanisms.

In Anjali Bhardwaj v. CPIO, Supreme Court of India, the Supreme Court clarified that while the final decisions and recommendations of the collegium must be made public, the discussions and deliberations during the process are confidential and cannot be disclosed. This ensures the confidentiality of judicial processes.

Under Section 20(1) of the Right to Information Act, 2005, a penalty of Rs 250 per day can be imposed for delays in providing information, subject to a maximum of Rs 25,000. This penalty is imposed by the Information Commission on the designated Public Information Officer (PIO) for failing to furnish information on time.

- X was provoked into committing the act in a fit of rage, classifying it as culpable homicide not amounting to murder under the IPC due to grave and sudden provocation.
- Y, however, intentionally handed the knife to X with the intent to cause Q's death. This makes Y guilty of murder under Section 300 IPC as he aided the act with malicious intent.

Robbery involves the use of force or threat of force to commit theft. Nayan's use of a pistol to compel Bala to surrender her belongings constitutes robbery under the IPC. Extortion, theft, and dacoity have distinct definitions that do not align with this situation.

Key Takeaway: Robbery involves the use or threat of force to commit theft, distinguishing it from extortion and theft.

In A. Sundarambal v. Government of Goa, Daman Diu, the Supreme Court ruled that teachers do not fall under the definition of 'workman' as their work is intellectual and educational, rather than manual, clerical, or skilled labor.

The Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992 was enacted with the following objectives:
- To protect the interests of investors in securities.
- To promote the development of the securities market.
- To regulate the securities market.
While ensuring parity with developed nations is a desired outcome, it is not explicitly mentioned as an objective in the Act.

- The Doctrine of Indoor Management relates to Kotla Venkataswamy v. Chinta Ramamurthy.
- The Doctrine of Ultra Vires is highlighted in Earlanger v. New Sombrero Phosphate Co..
- Lifting of Corporate Veil is demonstrated in Gilford Motor Co. Ltd. v. Horne.
- Duties of Promoters are outlined in Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar v. LIC of India.

- Option (1) involves undue influence and is invalid.
- Option (2) involves mutual mistake of fact, rendering the contract void.
- Option (3) presents a valid contract, as free consent is present. Courts do not assess the adequacy of consideration.
- Option (4) lacks a lawful object and is void as it contravenes public policy.

When consent to an agreement is obtained through coercion or duress, as in this case, it renders the agreement void ab initio (void from the beginning). Such an agreement has no legal validity and cannot be made valid by ratification.

- Right of lien is exercisable only when the unpaid seller retains possession of the goods.
- If possession has transferred to the buyer or their agent, the lien cannot be exercised.
- If goods are in transit, the seller may invoke stoppage in transit, not lien.

Under Section 31(2) of the Indian Partnership Act, a new partner is not liable for any acts of the firm prior to their joining. X became a partner in April 2023, while the contract was signed in March 2020. Therefore, X is not liable for obligations arising from that contract.

Under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the minimum age for marriage is 21 years for the male and 18 years for the female. If the marriage takes place when either party is underage, it is voidable at the instance of the underage party under Section 10 HMA, not void under Section 11. However, due to ambiguities in the question regarding amendments and changes in the law, this question has been dropped.

- Mother as natural guardian: Githa Hariharan v. Reserve Bank of India.
- Conversion and Marriage: Smt. Sarla Mudgal v. Union of India.
- Bigamy: State of Bombay v. Narasu Appa Mail.
- Restitution of Conjugal Rights: T. Sareetha v. T. Venkata Subbaiah.

- Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum: A landmark case affirming a Muslim woman's right to maintenance under Section 125 CrPC.
- Shabana Bano v. Imran Khan: Further expanded Muslim women's right to maintenance under the Muslim Women Act.
- Danial Latifi v. Union of India: Upheld the validity of the Muslim Women Act, ensuring fair provisions.
- Ahmedabad Women Action Group v. Union of India: Did not directly deal with maintenance but rather issues of bigamy and women’s rights.

- A child cannot be adopted by two or more people simultaneously. Adoption can only be by one individual or a married couple.
- Other conditions, such as age difference between the adoptive parent and child, absence of another son in the family, and actual giving and taking, are essential for a valid adoption.

- Income from trading shares is categorized under “Profits and Gains from Business and Profession” as it involves frequent transactions.
- Dividend income is categorized under “Income from Other Sources.”
Thus, the two heads are applicable, depending on the nature of the income.

Section 17 of the Income Tax Act, 1969 provides the definition of “salary” for income computation. It includes:
- Salary
- Perquisites (benefits or allowances granted by an employer)
- Profits in lieu of salary (compensations or profits).

The correct order of sections under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 is:
1. Ceremonies for a Hindu Marriage (Section 7)
2. Registration of Hindu marriages (Section 8)
3. Legitimacy of children of void and voidable marriages (Section 16)
4. Maintenance pendente lite and expenses of proceedings (Section 24)

The correct chronological order is:
1. Carlil v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. (1893): Established rules for unilateral contracts.
2. Mohori Bibi v. Dharmodas Ghose (1903): Defined the legal position of minors in contracts.
3. Lalman Shukla v. Gauri Dutt (1913): Dealt with the requirement of offer knowledge.
4. Bhagwan Das Goverdhan Das Kedia v. Girdhari Lal & Co. (1966): Addressed contracts made through telephone.

- Causa Proxima: Refers to proximate cause doctrine.
- Mitigation of Risk: Requires minimizing risks.
- Subrogation: Gives insurers the right to recover from third parties.
- Donatio mortis causa: Refers to gifts in contemplation of death, unrelated to insurance.

Under the Marine Insurance Act, 1963, a marine insurance contract may cover:
- Sea voyages
- Inland waterways
- Land risks incidental to the sea voyage.
Marine insurance provides broad protection for goods in transit, ensuring coverage during the entire journey.

The legal maxim “Ut res magis valeat quam pereat” translates to “It is better for a thing to have effect than to be made void.” Courts should strive to interpret statutes in a way that upholds their constitutionality and makes them workable rather than void.

Other maxims:
- Expressio unius est exclusio alterius: Express mention of one excludes others.
- Noscitur a sociis: A word is known by the company it keeps.
- Generalia specialibus non derogant: General law does not override specific law.

Internal aids to statutory interpretation include those found within the statute itself:
- Preamble: Indicates the intent and objectives of the statute.
- Long Title: Specifies the scope of the statute.
- Marginal Notes: Provide context for specific sections.
Parliamentary Notes, such as debates or committee reports, are external aids.

Anti-competitive agreements under Section 3 include:
- Exclusive distribution agreements: Limit consumer choice and market competition.
- Tie-in agreements: Force consumers to purchase unrelated products.
- Resale price maintenance: Prevent resellers from setting their own prices.
Supply agreements alone are not inherently anti-competitive unless they hinder competition.

Factors for determining dominant position include:
- Consumer dependence: Extent of reliance on the enterprise.
- Market share: Percentage of market controlled.
- Barriers to entry: Impediments for new competitors.
- Countervailing buying power: Ability of buyers to counteract market power.

The correct chronological order is:
1. The Wildlife (Protection) Act: Enacted in 1972.
2. The Forest (Conservation) Act: Enacted in 1980.
3. The Environment (Protection) Act: Enacted in 1986.
4. The National Green Tribunal Act: Enacted in 2010.

In M/S Pahwa Plastics Pvt. Ltd. v. Dastak NGO, the Supreme Court ruled that the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does not explicitly prohibit ex-post facto environmental clearances. The Court stated that such clearances could be allowed on a case-by-case basis.

Section 27(2) of the Trade Marks Act, 1999, deals with the common law remedy of passing off. This section acknowledges the rights of unregistered trademark owners to protect their marks against misuse, even if the trademark is not registered.

The Contempt of Courts Act, 1971, provides for a maximum punishment of Rs. 20,000 fine and/or six months imprisonment for criminal contempt. Disqualification from legal practice is not a punishment explicitly mentioned under the Act.

The correct order of chapters under the Companies Act is:
1. Appointment and qualifications of Directors.
2. Meetings of Board and its powers.
3. Prevention of oppression and mismanagement.
4. Compromise, arrangements, and amalgamation.

A Geographical Indication (GI) identifies products that:
- Originate in a specific territory (Option 1).
- Have reputation or characteristics attributable to that origin (Option 3).
- If manufactured, involve production, processing, or preparation in the identified territory (Option 4).
Option (2) is incorrect as GIs are not limited to exclusive production in the identified region.

For computer-generated works, copyright law recognizes the person who initiated and caused the work to come into existence as the author. This applies because such works are created with minimal to no human creative input in the final product.

The Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU) is the mechanism used by the WTO to resolve trade disputes between member states. It provides a structured process for addressing violations of trade rights and obligations.

The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) is the primary body responsible for the standardization of international trade terms. While Incoterms are maintained by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), UNCITRAL influences their development significantly.

- Injuria sine Damno: Violation of legal rights without damages, discussed in Bhim Singh v. State of Jammu & Kashmir.
- Damnum sine Injuria: Damages without legal injury, demonstrated in Gloucester Grammer School case.
- Volenti non fit injuria: Consent as a defense, explained in Padmavati v. Dugganaika.
- Force Majeure: Acts of God, discussed in Nichols v. Marsland.

Contributory negligence occurs when the plaintiff’s own negligence contributes to their injury or damage. The other concepts are:
- Remoteness of damage: Damage too far removed from the defendant's act.
- Inevitable accident: An event that could not have been prevented despite reasonable care.
- Nuisance: Unreasonable interference with someone’s enjoyment of property.

Key Takeaway: Contributory negligence involves the plaintiff’s role in their own harm.

Section 15 of the Trade Union Act, 1926, lists purposes for which the general funds of a registered trade union may be used. These include:
- Conducting trade disputes.
- Providing benefits to members, such as funeral expenses and educational benefits.
However, funds cannot be used for election expenses of a candidate for legislative bodies.

The following cases pertain to dishonour of cheques:
- Modi Cements Ltd. v. Kuchil Kumar Nandi: Discusses insufficiency of funds.
- Dashrath Rupsingh Rathod v. State of Maharashtra: Deals with territorial jurisdiction.
- G.J. Raja v. Tejraj Surana: Related to dishonour of cheque.
Indian Overseas Bank v. Industrial Chain Concern primarily deals with loan recovery and does not address dishonour of cheque.

Section 35A empowers the RBI to issue directions to banking companies under the following circumstances:
- In public interest.
- To secure proper management of banking companies.
- To prevent actions detrimental to depositor’s interest.
The term ‘public policy’ is not explicitly mentioned as a ground in Section 35A.

Section 300 IPC defines murder and lists exceptions where culpable homicide is not murder in the following sequence:
1. Sudden and grave provocation.
2. Act done in exercise of the right to private defence.
3. Act done in sudden fight.
4. Death caused with mutual consent.

- Negligence: Established in Winterbottom v. Wright.
- Strict Liability: Explained in Ryland v. Fletcher.
- Res ipsa loquitur: Discussed in Municipal Corporation Delhi v. Subhagwanti.
- Nuisance: Addressed in Campbell v. Paddington Corporation.