TISSNET 2024 Psychology  Question Paper (Available) - Download Solution Pdf with Answer Key

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• Sensory adaptation occurs when sensory receptors become less responsive to constant stimuli. For example, when you first enter a brightly lit room, it may seem very bright, but your eyes quickly adjust. This is an example of sensory adaptation.

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• The iris is the pigmented part of the eye responsible for controlling the size of the pupil. By adjusting the pupil size, the iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye, ensuring proper vision in various lighting conditions.

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• The correct sequence in the visual pathway is:
  • 1. Light stimulates receptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina.
  • 2. These signals are transmitted to bipolar cells.
  • 3. Ganglion cells receive the signals and their axons form the optic nerve.
  • 4. The optic nerve carries the visual information to the brain.

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• The principle of Figure and Ground in Gestalt psychology explains how we distinguish an object (the figure) from its background (the ground). For example, when reading, the black letters (figure) stand out against the white page (ground), allowing us to perceive meaningful text rather than just shapes and colors.

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• The Nativist perspective argues that perceptual abilities are innate and hard-wired into the brain. For example, the ability to recognize patterns, such as faces, is largely inborn, requiring minimal learning or environmental influence.

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• A constructivist (top-down) approach posits that perception is influenced by prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations. The concept of perceptual set aligns with this approach, as it reflects a readiness to perceive information in a particular way based on past experiences or context.

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• Binocular disparity is a depth cue that relies on the slightly different images seen by each eye due to their horizontal separation. This cue is unavailable to one eye. In contrast, motion parallax, linear perspective, and texture gradient are monocular depth cues that a single eye can utilize to judge distance.

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• Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential due to experience. Performance, on the other hand, is the observable expression of what has been learned, which can vary due to factors such as motivation, fatigue, or external conditions.

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• Operant Conditioning and Classical conditioning occurs when an organism learns to associate two stimuli. In this case, the snake bite (unconditioned stimulus) causes fear (unconditioned response). The location near the river becomes a conditioned stimulus that also elicits fear (conditioned response) through association.

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• In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) repeatedly. Over time, the conditioned response (CR) diminishes as the association weakens. For example, if a bell (CS) is rung but no food (UCS) follows, the salivation (CR) decreases.

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• B. F. Skinner, a leading figure in behaviorism, introduced operant conditioning, where reinforcement plays a central role in shaping behavior. Reinforcement refers to any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior. Positive reinforcement involves adding a rewarding stimulus (e.g., praise, food), while negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., reducing loud noise) to encourage a behavior. Unlike punishment, which aims to reduce behaviors, reinforcement focuses on promoting desirable behaviors by associating them with favorable outcomes.

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• Selective attention refers to the cognitive process of focusing on a specific stimulus or task while ignoring irrelevant or distracting information. In this scenario, the basketball player focuses entirely on shooting the free throw (the basket) and tunes out the crowd's noise and movement. This ability is crucial for performance in high-pressure situations, allowing the player to prioritize task-relevant stimuli and maintain accuracy despite external distractions.

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• Attention plays a fundamental role in memory formation, particularly during the encoding phase. By focusing cognitive resources on specific information, attention ensures that important details are processed more deeply and effectively. This deep processing increases the likelihood of successful encoding into long-term memory. Without attention, information is less likely to be retained or retrieved later, as the brain cannot allocate sufficient resources to encode it meaningfully.

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• Short-term memory (STM), also referred to as working memory, is the memory system responsible for temporarily holding and processing information. It has a limited capacity, both in terms of duration (typically 20–30 seconds) and the number of items it can hold (around 7±2 items). If the address is not rehearsed or actively transferred to long-term memory, it is likely to decay rapidly, explaining why you cannot recall it three minutes later.

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• Memory systems are categorized based on their function and characteristics:
  • Procedural Memory (A) refers to memory for skills and actions, such as riding a bicycle (III).
  • Sensory Memory (B) captures immediate, brief sensory information, like visual impressions (IV).
  • Semantic Memory (C) involves knowledge of facts and meanings, often requiring deep processing (I).
  • Episodic Memory (D) stores personal experiences or specific events, such as recalling a birthday celebration (II).

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• Anterograde amnesia is a condition where an individual loses the ability to create new memories following a traumatic event or brain injury. While past memories remain intact, the encoding and storage of new information in long-term memory are impaired. For instance, a person might remember their childhood vividly but struggle to recall a conversation they had moments ago.

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• Each theory of motivation provides unique insights into why individuals behave as they do:
  • Drive Theory (A) suggests behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs, such as hunger or thirst.
  • Arousal Theory (B) posits that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which explains behaviors like seeking excitement or relaxation depending on the context.
  • Expectancy Theory (C) emphasizes the role of anticipated rewards in driving behavior, with expectations of positive outcomes “pulling” behavior.
  • Goal Setting Theory (D) asserts that specific and challenging goals enhance performance by focusing efforts on defined objectives.

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• The theories of emotion differ in how they explain the interplay between physiological changes and emotional experiences:
  • Cannon-Bard Theory (A) suggests that physiological arousal and the subjective emotional experience occur simultaneously but independently.
  • James-Lange Theory (B) proposes that emotions arise from physiological responses; for instance, “we feel afraid because we tremble.”
  • Schachter-Singer Theory (C) combines physiological arousal with cognitive appraisal, asserting that the meaning of arousal depends on context.
  • Opponent Process Theory (D) argues that emotional responses are followed by opposing reactions to maintain balance.

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• Erik Erikson’s theory outlines eight distinct stages of psychosocial development, spanning from infancy to old age. Each stage presents a specific crisis or challenge, such as trust vs. mistrust in infancy or identity vs. role confusion during adolescence. Successful resolution of these crises leads to psychological growth and a stronger sense of self, while failure can result in difficulty navigating future stages.

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• Harry Harlow’s groundbreaking experiments revealed that baby monkeys formed stronger attachments to soft, cloth-covered surrogate mothers than to wire mothers that provided food. This demonstrated that contact comfort, or tactile sensation, was more critical for emotional bonding than mere nourishment. The findings highlighted the role of physical warmth and comfort in fostering a sense of security and attachment in infants.

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• Permissive parenting is characterized by a lack of rules, boundaries, and expectations. Parents who adopt this style tend to be nurturing and accepting but fail to enforce consistent discipline, leading to children who may struggle with self-regulation and authority. While permissive parents often aim to foster independence, the absence of structure can result in behavioral and emotional challenges.

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• According to Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, the preconventional level is the first stage of moral reasoning. At this stage, a child’s decisions are primarily driven by the consequences of their actions, such as avoiding punishment or seeking rewards. This stage reflects a self-centered approach to morality, where external outcomes dictate behavior.

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• Psychosexual Perspectives (A): Sigmund Freud introduced this theory, emphasizing stages of personality development driven by unconscious desires.
• Psychosocial Theory (B): Erik Erikson outlined eight stages of development, each focusing on a social conflict or task.
• Moral Development Theory (C): Lawrence Kohlberg proposed this framework to describe the progression of ethical reasoning.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (D): Leon Festinger developed this theory, highlighting how individuals strive to reduce the discomfort caused by conflicting beliefs or attitudes.

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• Illogical Ideas (A): Distorted cognitive patterns, such as overgeneralization or catastrophizing, initiate the cycle of negative thinking.
• Negative Affect (D): These illogical ideas lead to negative emotional states, such as sadness, hopelessness, or anxiety.
• Negative Behavior (C): Emotional disturbances influence behaviors, perpetuating maladaptive actions or withdrawal.
• Depression (B): Over time, these patterns reinforce a depressive state, creating a self-perpetuating loop.

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• Gordon Allport’s trait theory: A foundational framework for understanding personality. He categorized traits into three levels:
  • Cardinal Traits: Dominant traits that define an individual’s entire personality, often influencing most behaviors (e.g., altruism in Mother Teresa).
  • Central Traits: General characteristics that form the basic building blocks of personality (e.g., honesty, sociability).
  • Secondary Traits: Traits that are more situational and less consistent, such as preferences or attitudes (e.g., liking a specific type of music).

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Norms are statistical benchmarks derived from administering a test to a large, representative sample. They allow for the comparison of an individual’s test score to that of the reference group, providing context for interpreting the score.

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The Binet intelligence test focuses on assessing cognitive abilities such as verbal reasoning, vocabulary, comprehension, and problem-solving. Tasks like color discrimination, which assess sensory perception, are not central to the test’s primary goal of measuring intellectual capacity.

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Wechsler’s intelligence tests (e.g., WAIS, WISC) introduced separate scores for verbal and performance tasks. This contrasts with the Stanford-Binet test, which traditionally provided a single IQ score based on a ratio formula.

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Intelligence tests are moderately correlated with academic outcomes like college grades. However, their ability to predict broader success measures (e.g., wealth, awards, or happiness) is limited, as these factors often depend on additional variables like motivation, social skills, and life circumstances.

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The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective test that uses ambiguous images of people and scenes to elicit stories from individuals. These narratives reveal underlying motives, emotions, and conflicts by projecting the test-taker’s inner thoughts and feelings.

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Historically, neurosis referred to mental health conditions characterized by excessive anxiety, phobias, or obsessive-compulsive behaviors without significant distortions in reality perception. Unlike psychosis, which involves symptoms like delusions and hallucinations, neurosis is more closely associated with heightened anxiety and emotional distress.

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Crystallized intelligence, as described in Cattell’s theory, refers to knowledge and skills accumulated through life experiences, education, and cultural exposure. Examples include vocabulary, general knowledge, and problem-solving based on prior learning.

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- Repression (A): Blocking or forgetting distressing thoughts to prevent conscious awareness (II).
- Regression (B): Reverting to earlier, more childlike behaviors in response to stress (I).
- Projection (C): Attributing one’s own unacceptable impulses or feelings to someone else (IV).
- Displacement (D): Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a safer one (III).

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Carl Rogers defined a fully functioning person as one who is open to experience, self-aware, and able to adapt to changing circumstances. They can face challenges with resilience (B), maintain awareness of their emotions and environment (A), and freely make choices without inhibition (D). Inhibited behavior, as mentioned in (C), does not align with this concept.

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The correct sequence for simple random sampling involves the following steps:
1. Determine Population Size (B): Define the total population under study.
2. Identify Sampling Units (D): Clearly outline and list the population’s units for selection.
3. Decide on Sample Size (C): Specify how many units (n) will be randomly selected.
4. Randomly Select Cases (A): Use randomization methods, like a random number generator, to pick the sample.

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The different scales of measurement are used based on the nature of the data:
- Nominal Scale (A): Used for categories without numerical ranking, such as diagnostic groups of mental disorders (II).
- Ordinal Scale (B): Represents rank ordering, such as socio-economic status levels (I).
- Interval Scale (C): Contains equal intervals between points but lacks a true zero, such as temperature on a centigrade scale (IV).
- Ratio Scale (D): Includes a true zero, allowing for meaningful comparisons like weight measurement (III).

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Parametric statistical tests rely on the following core assumptions:
1. Normal Distribution (A): The population from which samples are drawn should follow a normal distribution.
2. Interval/Ratio Scale (B): The data should be measured on an interval or ratio scale, ensuring numerical comparability.
3. Probability Sampling (D): The data should be randomly sampled to ensure representativeness.
Having many outliers (C) is not an assumption but a violation, as it can distort the results of parametric tests.

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Theories of intelligence and their proponents:
- ‘g’ Factor Theory (A): Spearman proposed the general intelligence (g) factor, emphasizing a core cognitive ability underlying diverse tasks (II).
- Hierarchical Theory (B): Vernon’s hierarchical model linked general intelligence with specialized abilities (III).
- Multifactor Theory (C): Thurstone identified primary mental abilities, emphasizing independent cognitive domains (IV).
- Cubical Model (D): Guilford’s Structure of Intellect model used a 3D framework to categorize intellectual abilities (I).

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Dissociative Fugue is a rare condition under the umbrella of dissociative disorders. It is characterized by:
- Sudden, unexpected travel or wandering away from one’s home or routine.
- Adoption of a new identity, either partially or fully.
- Inability to recall important personal information, especially about one’s past.

Solution:

Erikson’s psychosocial development stages describe tasks associated with each life stage:
1. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (A): This occurs during the toddler years (II), focusing on independence and self-control.
2. Initiative vs. Guilt (B): Present in early childhood (III), it involves exploring and initiating activities while learning to balance ambition with guilt.
3. Generativity vs. Stagnation (C): During middle adulthood (IV), individuals strive to contribute to society through work, parenting, or mentorship.
4. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (D): Occurs in late adulthood (I), where individuals reflect on their life and seek a sense of fulfillment or risk despair.